RITUALNO I CEREMONOIJALNO DEKOMPONOVANJE KOSTIJU U SAHRANAMA IZ BRONZANOG I GVOZDENOG DOBA NA JERMENSKOJ VISORAVNI
Ključne reči:
Jermenija, gvozdeno doba, tafonomski, dekomponovanje skeletnog materijala, kremacija, ljudske lobanje, skalpiranje, paleoantropologija, markeri okupacionog stresaApstrakt
U ovom članku ću skrenuti pažnju na religijske i prakse sahranjivanja na Jermenskoj visoravni. Još od kako su prvi put otkriveni u XIV veku, osteološki ostaci iz Lori Berda su privlačili pažnju kao mogući arheološki dokazi starih zoroastrijanskih praksi sahranjivanja. Ritualno i ceremonijalno dekomponovanje i spaljivanje koje se javlja u Lori Berdu se usredsređuje na ukazivanje počasti i poštovanja mrtvima.
Na lokalitetu Širakavan arheolozi su pronašli tri lobanje kojima nedostaje postkranijalni skelet. Tri lobanje nisu kompletne – nedostaju im mandibule. Budući da pripadaju dvema mladim ženama i jednom mladom muškarcu, pretpostavlja se da je reč o ljudskim žrtvama a ne precima koji su bili uvaženi. Lokaliteti Lori Berd i Širakavan su takođe sadržali ostatke dve individue koji ukažuju na skalpiranje. Nekoliko indikatora nasilja je primećeno na proučavanom materijalu. Paleopatološka analiza ostataka ukazala je na to da se populacija susretala sa infektivnim bolestima, bolestima zuba itd. Među individuama sa lokaliteta Širakavan postoje jasne indikacije pojačane upotrebe mišića koja se pojavljuje prilikom bacanja kopalja. Jasno izraženi patološki kompleks koji ukazuje na jahanje konja je primetan kod nekih muških ostataka na Jermenskoj visoravni.
Reference
Alekseeva, Tatiana I. and Svetlana I. Krus. 1999. The Ancient population of Eastern Europe. In The Eastern Slavs. Anthropology and Ethnic History, ed. T.I. Alekseev, 254-279. Moscow: Scientific World. pp..
Allen, W. H., Charles F. Merbs and W.H. Birkby. 1985. Evidence for Prehistoric Scalping at Nuvakwewtaqa (Chavez Pass) and Grasshopper Ruin, Arizona. In Health and Disease in the Prehistoric Southwest, eds. Ch.F. Merbs, R.J. Miller, 23-42. Tempe: Arizona State University.
Anthony, David W. 2007. The horse, the wheel and language: How BronzeAge riders from theEurasian steppes shaped the modern world. Princeton and Oxford: Princeton University Press.
Aufderheide, Arthur C. and Conrado Rodriguez-Martin. 1998. The Cambridge Encydopedia of Human Paleopathology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Badalyan, Ruben and Pavel S. Avetisyan. 2007. Bronze and Early Iron Age Archaeological Sites in Armenia (BAR International Series 1697). Oxford.
Balaresque, Patricia, Georgina R. Bowden, Susan M. Adams, Ho-Yee Leung, Turi E. King, Zoë H. Rosser, Jane Goodwin, Jean-Paul Moisan, Christelle Richard, Ann Millward, Andrew G. Demaine, Guido Barbujani, Carlo Previderè, Ian J. Wilson, Chris Tyler-Smith and Mark A. Jobling. 2010. A Predominantly Neolithic Origin for European Paternal Lineages. PLoS Biol 8(1): e1000285. doi: 10.1371/journal.pbio.1000285
Berzin, E., Grantovsky, E. 1962. Kinsman of Indians on Black Sea shores. Soviet Land (publ. by the Soviet Embassy in India) XV (10): 26-27.
Bridges, P.S., K.P. Jacobi and M.L. Powell. 2000. Warfare-related trauma in the late prehistory of Alabama. In Bioarchaeological Studies of Life in the Age of Agriculture: A View From the Southeast, ed. P.M. Lambert, 35-62, Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press.
Bonogofsky, M. 2005. A Bioarchaeological Study of Plastered Skulls from Anatolia: New Discoveries and Interpretations. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 15: 124-135.
Buikstra, Jane E. and Douglas H. Ubelaker. 1994. Standards of data collection from human skeletal remains. Arkansas Archaeological Survey Research Series 44. Fayetteville.
Carr, Gillian and Christopher Knüsel. 1997. The ritual framework of excarnation by exposure as the mortuary practice of the early/middle Iron Age of central southern Britain. In Reconstructing Iron Age societies, eds. G. Haselgrove, C. Haselgrove, 167-173. Oxford: Oxbow Books.
Cauvin, Jacques. 1994. Naissance des divinités. Naissance de l’agriculture. La revolution des symboles au Néolithique. Paris: Editions du Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique.
Cunliffe, Barry. 1992. Pits, preconceptions and propitiation in the British Iron Age. Oxford Journal of Archaeology 11: 69-83.
Cunliffe, Barry 1995. Behaviour and belief. In Danebury: an Iron Age hillfort in Hampshire. A hillfort community in perspective, vol. 6, ed. B. Cunliffe, 72-79. London: Council for British Archaeology.
Dadudov, O.M. 1974. Culture Dagestan Early Iron Age. Mahchalala.
Devejyan, Seda H. 1981. Lori-Berd, I. Erevan: National Academy of Science of Armenia.
Dubova, Nadejda A. 2009. Migration and trade: anthropological notes. Short messages of Institute of archeology Academy of Sciences Rossiya 223: 224-243.
Dubova, Nadejda A. 2010. Process of ethnogenesis on the Eurasian space (anthropological consequences of migrations and trade in Bronze Age). In Esse Homo: his biological and social history, Materials of the International Conference, devoted to the 80 birth anniversary Academician RAS V.P. Alekseev (Fourth Alexeev`s reading), eds. S.A. Arytyunov et al., 67-79. Moscow.
Dunning, G. 1976. Salmonsbury, Burton-on-the-Water, Gloucestershire. In Later prehistoric earthworks in Britain and Ireland, ed. D. Harding, 75- 118. London: Routledge.
Eshed, Vered, Avi Gopher, Ehud Galili and Israel Hershkovitz. 2004. Musculoskeletal stress markers in Natufian hunter-gatherers and Neolithic farmers in the Levant: The upper limb. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 123: 303-315.
Fisenko, V.A. 1966. On the origins and chronology of the Catacomb-grave culture. Saratov: Sratov University.
Gadzhiev, M.G. 1966. New data about southern communications of Dagestan in IV-III millennium BC. Short messages of Institute of archeology Academy of Sciances USSR 108: 59-68.
Gamkrelidze, T.V. and V.V. Ivanov. 1984. Indo-European language and Indo-Europeans. Tbilisi: Tbilisi University.
Gilbert, B.M. and T.W. McKern. 1973. A method for aging the female os pubis. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 38:31-38.
Goldhahn, Joakim and Terje Østigård. 2007. Rituelle spesialister i bronse- og jernalderen. Gotarc Serie C. Arkeologiska Skrifter 65. Gothenburg.
Goodman, Alan H., Debra L. Martin, George J. Armelagos and G. Qark. 1984. Indications of stress from bones and teeth. In Paleopathology at the origins of agriculture, eds. M.N. Cohen, G.J. Armelagos, 13–49. New York: Academic Press.
Goodman, Alan H. and Jerome C. Rose. 1990. Assessment of systemic physiological perturbations from dental enamel hypoplasias and associated histological structures. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology 33:59-110.
Goodman, Alan H. and Jerome C. Rose. 1991. Dental enamel hypoplasias as indicators of nutritional status. In Advances in dental anthropology, eds. M.A. Kelley, C.S. Larsen, 279-293. New York: Wiley-Liss.
Iserson, Kenneth. 1994. Death to Dust. Tuscon (AZ): Galen Press, Ltd.
Hamperl, H. and W.S. Laughlin. 1959. Osteological Consequences of Scalping. Human Biology (31): 80-89.
Hawkey, Diane E. 1998. Disability, Compassion and the skeletal record: Using musculoskeletal stress markers (MSM) to construct an osteobiography from early New Mexico. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 8: 326-340.
Hawkey, Diane E. and Charles F. Merbs. 1995. Activity-induced musculoskeletal stress markers (MSM) and subsistence strategy changes among ancient Hudson Bay Eskimos. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 5: 324-338.
Herodotus 1972. History in Nine Books. Translation and Notes by G.A. Stratanovsky. Leningrad.
Hillson, Simon. 1996. Dental anthropology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Hillson, Simon. 2000. Dental pathology. In Biological anthropology of the human skeleton, eds. M.A. Katzenberg, S.R. Saunders, 249-286, New York: Wiley-Liss.
Hurlbut, Sharon A. 2000. The Taphonomy of Cannibalism: A Review of Anthropogenic Bone Modification in the American Southwest. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 10 (1): 4-26.
Jacobi, K.P. 2007. Disabling the Dead: Human Trophy Taking in the Prehistoric Southeast. In The Taking and Displaying of Human Body Parts, eds. R.J. Chacon, D.H. Dye, 299-228. New York: Springer.
Katz, D. and J.M. Suchey. 1986. Age determination of the male os pubis. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 69: 427-435.
Keeley, Lawrence H. 1996. War Before Civilization: The Myth of the Peaceful Savage. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Kenyon, Kathleen M. 1957. Digging Up Jericho: The Results of the Jericho Excavations, 1952-1956. London: Earnest Benn Associates.
Khohlov, Alexander A. 2000. Craniological materials Srubnaya cultures of the south of the Average Volga region. In The people of Russia: from the past to the present, ed. S.G. Efimova, 217–242. Moscow.
Khokhlov, Alexander A. and R.A. Mimokhod. 2008. Craniology of the population of steppe Ciscaucasia and the Volga region in post Catacomb time. Anthropology bulletin 16: 44-70
Khudaverdyan, Anahit Yu. 2009. The bronze population of Armenian highland. Еthnogenesis and ethnic history. Yerevan: Van Aryan.
Khudaverdyan, Anahit Yu. 2011a. Migrations in the Eurasian steppes in the light of paleoanthropological data. The Mankind Quarterly (Washington) LI (4): 387–463.
Khudaverdyan, Anahit 2011b. Ancient communities of the Caucasus - in the worlds' dialogs (anthropological an etude). Germany: LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing AG & Co. KG.
Khudaverdyan, Anahit Yu. 2012a. A bioarchaeological analysis of the population of the Armenian Highland and Transcaucasus in the Antiquity Age. The Mankind Quarterly (Washington) 53 (1): 3-35.
Khudaverdyan, Anahit Yu. 2012b. Bioarchaeological analysis of human skeletal remains of Iron Age from the Shirakavan cemetery, Shirak plateau, Armenia. Advances in Anthropology 2 (4): 224-233.
Khlopin, I.N. 1983. Southwest Turkmenia during an epoch of the Late Bronze age (on materials of the Sumbar burial). Leningrad: Science.
Klejn, Leonid S. 1984. The coming of Aryans: who and whence? Bulletin of the Deccan College Research Institute (Pune) 43: 57-72.
Krupnov, E.I. 1966. The Caucasus in the most ancient history of our country. History questions 5: 27-40.
Kuijt, Ian. 2000. Life in Neolithic Farming Communities. Social Organization, Identity, and Differentiation. New-York.
Kuijt, Ian. 2008. The Regeneration of Life. Neolithic Structures of Symbolic Remembering and Forgetting. Current Anthropology 49 (2): 1-20.
Lambert, Patricia M. 2007. Ethnographic and Linguistic Evidence for the Origins of Human Trophy Taking in California. In The Taking and Displaying of Human Body Parts as Trophies by Amerindians, eds. R.J. Chacon, D.H. Dye, 65-89. New York: Springer.
Lambert, Patricia M. 2007. The Osteological Evidence for Indigenous Warfare in North America. In North American Indigenous Warfare and Ritual Violence, eds. R. J. Chacon, R.G. Mendoza, 202-221, Tucson: The University of Arizona Press.
Lang, J. 2005. Armenians: The people creator. Riddles of ancient civilisations. Moscow.
Larsen, Clark S. 1997. Bioarchaeology: Interpreting Behavior from the Human Skeleton. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Lewis, M.A.O., T.W. Macfarlane and D.A. Mcgowan.1986. Quantitative bacteriology of acute dento-alveolar abscesses. Journal of Medical Microbiology 21:101-104.
Lovejoy, C.O., R.S. Meindl, T.R. Pryzbeck and R.P. Mensforth. 1985. Chronological metamorphosis of the auricular surface of the ilium: A new method for the determination of adult skeletal age at death. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 68: 15-28.
Lyman, R. Lee. 1994. Vertebrate Taphonomy. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Martiroyan, A.A. and A.O. Mnacakanyan. 1973. Prierevansky treasure of ancient bronze. Short messages of Institute of archeology Academy of Sciances USSR 134: 122-127.
Meindl, R.S., C.O. Lovejoy, R.P. Mensforth and L.D. Carlos. 1985. Accuracy and direction of error in the sexing of the skeleton: Implications for paleodemography. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 68: 79-85.
Mensforth, Robert P. 2001. Warfare and Trophy Taking in the Archaic Period. In Archaic Transitions in Ohio and Kentucky Prehistory, eds. O.H. Prufer, S. E. Pedde, R.J. Meindl, 110-138. Kent, Ohio: The Kent State University Press.
Milner, George R., Eve. Anderson and Virginia G. Smith. 1991. Warfare in late prehistoric west-central Illinois. American Antiquity 56: 581–603.
Molleson, Theya. 2009. Two Sasanian ossuaries from Bushehr, Iran Evidence for exposure of the dead. Bioarchaeology of the Near East 3: 1–16.
Munchaev, R.M. and K.F. Smirnov. 1958. Archaeological sites near village Karabudahkent. Materials and Research on the Archaeology of the USSR 68: 154-155.
Murphy, Eileen, Ilia Gokhman, Yuri Chistov and Ludmila Barkova. 2002. Prehistoric Old World Scalping: New Cases from Cemetary of Aymyrlyg, Sought Siberia. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 106: 1-10.
Nadeau, Gabriel. 1944. Indian Scalping Technique in Different Tribes. Ciba Symposia 5(10): 1677-1681.
Nechitailo, A.L. 1991. Communications of the population of steppe Ukraine and the North Caucasus during a Bronze Age. Kiev.
Neumann, Georg K. 1940. Evidence for the Antiquity of Scalping from Central Illinois. American Antiquity 5(4): 287-289.
Olsen, Sandra L. and P. Shipman. 1994. Cutmarks and Perimorten Treatment of Skeletal Remains on the Northern Plains. In Skeletal Biology in the Great Plains: Migration, Warfare, Health and Subsistence, eds. D.W. Owsley, R.L. Jantz, 277-378. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press.
Ortner, Donald J. 2003. Identification of Pathological Conditions in Human Skeletal Remains. 2nd edition. London: Academic Press.
O'Shea, J.M. and P. Brides 1989. The Sargent Site Ossuary (25CU28) Culter County, Nebraska. Plains Anthropologist 34 (123): 7-21.
Özbek, Metin. 2009. Remodeled Human Skulls in Koşk Höyük (Neolithic Age, Anatolia): A New Appraisal in View of Recent Discoveries. Journal of Archaeological Science 36: 379-386.
Owsley, Douglas W. 1994. Warfare in Coalescent Tradition Populations in the Northern Plains. In Skeletal Biology in the Great Plains: Migration, Warfare, Health and Subsistence, eds. D.W. Owsley, R.L. Jantz, 333-343. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press.
Parker Pearson M. 1996. Food, fertility and front doors in the first millennium BC. In The Iron Age in Britain and Ireland: recent trends, eds. T. Champion, J.R. Collis, 117-132. Sheffield, JR Collis Publications.
Passek, T.S. 1949. Periodization Tripol settlements. Kiev.
Pererva, E.V. and S.I. Lukyashko. 2011. About semantics of a ceremony scalping at Early Sarmatians. In Funeral ceremony of the early Nomads of Eurasia. Materials and researches on archeology of the South of Russia III, eds. G.G. Matishov, L.T. Yablonsky, S.I. Lukyashko, 378-397. Rostov-onDon: JUNTS of the Russian Academy of Sciences.
Phenice, T.W. 1969. A Newly Developed Visual Method of Sexing the Os Pubis. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 30: 297-302.
Piotrovsky, Boris B. 1959. Vansky kingdom (Urartu). Moscow: East literature.
Prothero, Stephen. 2001. Purified by Fire: A History of Cremation In America. Berkeley (CA): University of California Press.
Pystovalov, S. 2002. Development cattle breeding in Northern Black Sea Coast during of Neolith-Late Bronze Age. In Formations ancient farmers and cattlemen of Northern Black Sea Coast (IV millennium BC - IV centuries AE), ed. E.V. Iarovoi, 101-104. Tiraspol.
Reese, Hans H. 1940. The History of Scalping and Its Clinical Aspects. In The Year Book of Neurology, Psychiatry, and Endocrinology, 3-19. Chicago: The Yearbook Publishers.
Roberts, Charlotte and Keith Manchester 2005. The archaeology of disease. 3rd edition. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
Rollefson, Gary. 1985. The 1983 Season at the Early Neolithic Site of Ain Ghazal. National Geographic Research 1 (1): 43-61.
Rollefson, Gary, Alan Simmons and Z. Kafafi. 1992. Neolithic Culture at Ain Ghazal, Jordan. Journal of Field Archaeology 19: 443-469.
Rosen, Fred. 2004. Cremation in America. New York: Prometheus Books.
Sagona, Antonio G. and Michael Abramishvili. 2008. Archaeology in Southern Caucasus: Perspectives from Georgia (Ancient Near Eastern Studies Supplement Series 19). Leuven.
Sarianidi, Viktor I. 2010. Long before Zarathustra (archaeological evidence in Bactria and Margiana). Moscow: The Old Garden.
Schmandt-Besserat, Denise. 2002. From Behind the Mask: Plastered Skulls from ‘Ain Ghazal. Origini. Preistoria e Protoitoria delle civilita antiche XXIV: 95-139.
Schmandt-Besserat, Denise, P.S. Griffin, C.A. Grissom, G.O. Rollefson and J.C. Rose. 2010. From Behind the Mask: Plastered Skulls from Ain Ghazal. Available at: http://menic.utexas.edu/ghazal/ChapV/skull/
Schultz, Michael. 1993. Initial stages of systemic bone disease. In Histology of ancient human bone: methods and diagnosis, eds. G. Grupe, A.N. Garland, 185-203. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
Schultz, Michael. 2001. Paleohistopathology of bone: a new approach to the study of ancient diseases. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology 44: 106-147
Shevchenko, А.В. 1984. Paleoanthropology data to a question on a population origin Srubnaja a cultural-historical generality. In Problems of anthropology of the ancient and modern population of Eurasia, ed. I. Gokhman, 55-73. Leningrad: Science.
Shevchenko, А.В. 1986. Anthropology of the population of South Russian steppes during a Bronze Age. In Anthropology of the modern and ancient population of the European part of the USSR, ed. I. Gokhman, 121-215. Leningrad: Science.
Smith, Maria O. 2003. Beyond Palisades: The Nature and Frequency of Late Prehistoric Deliberate Violent Trauma in the Chickamauga Reservoir of East Tennessee. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 121: 303-318.
Smith, M.O. 2008. Adding Insult to Injury: Opportunistic Treponemal Disease in a Scalping Survivor. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 18: 589-599.
Stuart-Macadam, Patricia. 1989. Nutritional deficiency diseases: a survey of scurvy, rickets, and iron-deficiency anemia. In Reconstruction of life from the skeleton, eds. M.Y. İşcan, K.A.R. Kennedy, 201-222. New York: Wiley-Liss.
Stuart-Macadam, Patricia. 1992a. Anemia in past human populations. In Diet, demography, and disease: changing perspectives on anemia, eds. P. Stuart-Macadam, S. Kent, 151-170. New York: Aldine de Gruyter.
Stuart-Macadam, Patricia. 1992b. Porotic hyperostosis: a new perspective. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 87: 39-47.
Seeman, M.F. 2007. Predatory War and Hopewell Trophies. In The Taking and Displaying of Human Body Parts, eds. R.J. Chacon, D.H. Dye, 167- 189. New York: Springer.
Stanford, S.C. 1974. Croft Ambrey. Excavations carried out at the Woolhope Naturalists Field Club 1960-66. Hereford: Woolhope Naturalists Field Club.
Steadman, Dawnie W. 2008. Warfare Related Trauma at Orendorf: A Middle Mississippian Site in West-Central Illinois. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 136: 51-64
Trifonov, V.A. 1991. The Steppes Kuban during of eneolithic-average Bronze Age (periodization). Ancient cultures near Kuban (on materials of archaeological works of Krasnodar territory). Leningrad: Science.
Torosyan, R.M., Onik S. Hnkikyan and Levon A. Petrosyan. 2002. Ancient Shirakavan (the results of excavations 1977-1981). Archaeological excavations in Armenia. Yerevan: Science.
Turner, V. 1967. The Forest of Symbols. Aspects of Ndembu Ritual. New York: Cornell University Press.
Wait, G.A. 1985. Ritual and religion in Iron Age Britain. Oxford: British Archaeological Report (British series 149).
Walker, Phillip L. 1984. The deposition of the human remains. In Danebury: An Iron Age hillfort in Hampshire, vol. 2, excavations 1968-1978: the finds, ed. B. Cunliffe, 442-462, London: Council for British Archaeology.
Walker, Phillip L. 2001. A Bioarchaeological Perspective on the History of Violence. Annual Reviews in Anthropology (30): 572-596.
Walker, Phillip L., K.M.D. Miller and R. Richman. 2008. Time, temperature and oxygen availability: an experimental study of the effects of environmental conditions on the color and organic content of cremated bone. In The analysis of burned human remains, eds. C.W. Schmidt, S.A. Symes, 129-136. Academic Press.
Weiss, Elizabeth. 2003. Effects of rowing on humeral strength. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 121: 293-302.
Weiss, Elizabeth. 2007. Muscle markers revisited: Activity pattern reconstruction with controls in a central California Amerind population. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 133:931-940.
White, Tim. 1991. Prehistoric Cannibalism at Mancos 5MTUMR-2346. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
Williams, Howard. 2008. Towards an Archaeology of Cremation. In The Analysis of Burned Human Remains, eds. C. Schmidt, S. Symes, 239-269. Great Britain, Academic Press.
Wilson, C.E. 1981. Burials within settlements in Southern Britain during the pre-Roman Iron Age. Bulletin of the Institute of Archaeology 18: 127-170.
Woodward, Ann. 1993. The Cult of Relics in Prehistoric Britain. In Search of the Cult, Archaeological Investigations in Honour of P. Raht, ed. M.O.H. Carver, 1-7. Woodbridge: The Boydell Press.
Yusupov, R.M. 1989. Anthropology of the Southern Urals. Timber Grave culture. Materials of Bronze Age and early Iron Age from the Southern Urasl and the Volga regions. Ufa.